The Stone Ring or the Magic Circle

Excerpts, from the 1930 doctoral thesis

"Essay On the Origin of the South Indian Temple"

N. Venkata Ramanayya

The patient labors of archaeologists have brought to light thousands of graves which lie scattered all over South India and the Deccan. They belong to different ages. The earliest of them go back to what is generally called the Stone Age; and the latest belong to the 15th and 16th centuries of the Christian era. They are classified by specialists into a number of types, each of which is sharply distinguished from the others by special peculiarities of construction. The most primitive of them is, perhaps, the simple ring of stones, with three stones in the centre, marking the place where the dead body lies buried. There are hundreds of these stone circles at Amaravati in the Kistna district, and archaeologists are of the opinion that the place marks the site of the burial ground of some ancient city, probably that of Dharanikota, the eastern capital of the Andhra kings of the Satavahana dynasty. This is very probable, as stone circles are still made use-of by certain savage tribes to mark their place of burial. The Todas of the Nilgiri Hills, “even now burn their dead in a circle of stones, and bury the ashes there [1].” Generally, they do not construct a new circle of stones for every corpse that is cremated; but they make use of “the same circle for repeated cremation. [2]” The circle of stones that is put to this use is called by Todas an “azaram;” and the Toda practice of constructing azarams gives us some idea regarding the nature of the circles at Amaravati.

We have to start our inquiry with the cemetery of Dharanikota, the ancient capital of the Andhras. Why did the people of this old city build stone circles around the graves of their dead? Were they required to serve any real purpose? Had they any religious or other significance? What was the meaning of the three stones in the centre? It is necessary that we must find answers to all these questions, if we desire to understand them properly. To begin with, we must ascertain the meaning of the three stones in the middle of the circle. Why three stones are found where one would have been sufficient is certainly a mystery, which cannot be easily unravelled. It is, however, probable that the practice of placing three stones on the graves had a simple origin. They must have been placed to prevent the ghost of the dead man rising from the grave. The stones were originally placed apart, not together, one on the head, another on the abdomen, and a third on the legs. This practice is still observed by the Boyas, a Telugu tribe of hunters living in the hilly tracts on the western border of the Telugu districts [3]. The three stones seem to have been brought together, after the introduction of cremation. Following the Aryan practice, the Dravidians cremated the dead body, and buried the ashes; and the three stones which were originally placed in three different places on the grave were brought together, and deposited over the jar containing the ashes.

There appears to have grown up, at the same time, a belief in the minds of the men that the ghost of the dead man lives in the stones. The Khasis, a savage people that live on our Eastern frontier, are accustomed to set up monoliths to honor their dead. A group of three or five, or nine is set up for every dead man whose spirit is supposed to live in it; three, however, is the most common number. The village deities who are closely related to the spirits of the dead, are similarly represented. Pota-Razu, the brother and sometimes the husband of Poleramma, is represented by three pyramidal or conical stones. Mariyatta is represented by three bricks in several places in the City of Madras. Three bricks represent her in Sembudas Street, just behind the University Students’ Club. There is also a tiny shrine of the goddess built of earth behind the three bricks. Another group of three represents her in the Spur Tank; a third group of seven represents the deity under a tree on the Pantheon Road between the Maternity Hospital and the Museum. Another group of three bricks seen in a small shrine in the compound of the Office of the Director of the Public Instruction probably represents Munisvara and not Mariyatta. In all these cases a single spirit or deity is represented by three or more stones. The number of stones does not appear to produce any disintegrating effect upon the spirit or deity. Therefore we cannot be far from the truth, when we say that the three stones in the midst of the circle at Amaravati represent the spirit of the dead man.

The circle of stones surrounding the three stones, or more generally the cairn, has attracted much attention. Two or three theories which propose to explain its meaning have already been started. Mr. Longhurst is of the opinion that the stone circles appear to be only intended as retaining walls for the earth and stones which were heaped over the stone sepulcher in the middle [4]. Mr. Longhurst’s theory has an exclusive reference to the circle surrounding cairns. He ignores completely the simple stone circles, such as those that are found at Amaravati. Moreover, his theory fails to give a satisfactory explanation even of those circles that surround cairns. Their presence in places where they are not at all required to perform the functions of ‘retaining walls’ destroys the theory altogether. Another hypothesis is suggested by Mr. William Crooke in his book Things Indian. He says, “The circle was probably intended as a ‘ghost-hedge,’ to restrain the spirit within these assigned limits, or a sign that the site was taboo [5].” This appears to be true. The burial-ground is generally regarded as an impure place. Anyone who enters it is polluted, and he requires to be purified. What is true of the burial ground is equally true of individual graves. We find it recorded in the Rig Veda that the Aryans considered the burial-ground as taboo. R.-V. X. 18 says:—

I place this barrier [of stones] on this

account that no one may go beyond it.

More generally, however, primitive people are afraid of the spirits of the dead. It is a common belief among them that the ghosts of the dead are unhappy, and that they wreak vengeance upon the living, if they neglect them after death. They are also said to be the causes of epidemics and famines. It is, therefore, necessary to propitiate them, and buy them off, by means of gifts.

The Birhors of Central India are very much troubled by the fear of evil spirits. It is said that as soon as a Birhor is dead, “his disembodied spirit becomes the prime object of fears and concern to his relatives and other people of his settlement. And the observances and ceremonies customary during this period appear to have for their main object, the prevention of harm to the tanda though his spirit on the one hand, and on the other hand of harm to his spirit through stray, malignant spirits. Even the offering of food laid out for the spirit appears to be promoted less be a feeling of affection for him than from fear and a desire to keep him agreeably engaged at a distance.”

Again, “the spirit of the deceased hovers about in an unsettled state between the land of the living on the one side, and the spirit world on the other, and is considered peculiarly dangerous to the community as well as to itself. A woman dying within twenty-one days of childbirth, or a child dying within twenty-one days of birth, may never be admitted into the community of ancestor-spirits, as their spirits are always dangerous. In their case, therefore, a new doorway to the hut is opened to take their corpse to the grave. These corpses are buried in a place apart from that where the other corpses are buried. Women and not men bury such corpses; the men only dig the graves and go away. Thorns are pricked into their feet to prevent them from leaving their graves [6].”

The Mundas of Chota Nagpur worship a set of spirits called “bonita bongas.” They consider it necessary to propitiate these spirits. The bonita bongas “are indeed no gods at all, nor are they regarded by the Mundas as such. These malevolent entities … are believed to be earth-bound spirits of persons who died a violent and unnatural death. The propitiation of this class of spirits is the duty—not of the Munda householder, nor of the Munda village priest, Pahan—but of the ghost-finders … Occasionally, indeed, the earth-bound spirit of some deceased member of a family haunts his old fields and may do some mischief, and has in such a case to be propitiated by sacrifices … [7]”

It is interesting to note that the Mundas who are closely related to Birhors, are in the habit of erecting rough cromlechs over the graves of their dead.

“A grave is dug at a selected spot in the Sasan (smasana), and in it the earthen vessel containing the bones of the deceased is interred. Along with the bones, a little rice, oil mixed with turmeric and a few copper coins (pice) are put into a vessel. After the excavation is filled up, the large stone slab is placed upon it, supported on four small pieces stone at the four corners [7].”

The connection between the simple circle of stones and the cromlech is well known. The latter was developed from the former, after a long process of evolution in the art of building tombs.

It is from such beliefs as have been described above that the extensive practice of worshiping the spirits of the dead arose. The true religion of the masses in South India is based upon the fear of demons with which their minds are filled. It is this fear that induced the ancient inhabitants of the land to take many precautionary steps to restrain their malignant activity. One of the steps which they adopted is to circumscribe their sphere of activity by erecting a magic circle of stones around the grave. The stone circles which form a striking feature of prehistoric graves had their origin in the need which the primitive people felt to prevent the ghosts from wandering far from the graves.

The meaning of the stone circles at Amaravati has been made clear by what has been said above; but these circles were not a peculiar feature of Andhra social customs in a bygone age. They are still erected in the Deccan and Western India in a modified form. The inhabitants of these parts are not in the habit of erecting stone circles around the graves of the dead; but they build them in order to honor the demon, Vetal or Bhetala whom they commonly worship. Vetal is at present regarded as an avatara of Siva; but if we carefully examine his past career, the fact that he was originally a demon becomes clear. The cult of this demon is said to be very ancient. Two arguments are generally advanced to prove its antiquity. In the first place, “Vetal in Deccan has no image in the shape of any animal whatever, It seems then possible that his worship was introduced previous to the custom of likening gods to men and other animals.” Secondly, “Vetal has no temple, but is worshiped in the open air, generally under the shade of a wide-spreading tree. This circumstance also connects his worship with the most ancient forms of idolatry [8].”

Dr. Stevenson gives us the following description of the shrine of Vetala: “This place where Vetal is worshiped is a kind of stone-henge or inclosure of stones, usually in somewhat of a circular shape. The following is the plan after which these circles are constructed. At some distance from the village, under a green spreading tree of any common indigenous species is placed Vetal. If as sometimes happens in a bare country like the Dekhan, no tree at a convenient distance is to be found, Vetal is content to raise his head under a canopy of heaven without the slightest artificial covering whatever. The principal figure where the worship of Vetal is performed is a rough unhewn stone, of a pyramidal or a triangular shape placed on its base, having one of its sides fronting the east, and if under a tree, placed to the east side of the tree. The stone is of various dimensions [9].” William Crooke also gives a similar account of the circles of Vetala: “In Deccan we find numerous stone circles erected in honor of Vetala, the ghost-king or the demon-lord. They are in form analogous to the European monuments of this class. The centre is occupied by a large stone in which the demon lives, and the surrounding ring his followers [10].”

The passages that have been cited above show that there is a marked resemblance between the Vetala circles, and the circles at the cemetery in the neighborhood of Amaravati. In both cases, there is a circle of stones surrounding a stone or group of three stones. We shall now proceed to examine Vetala circles further, to see whether the resemblance between them and the circles at Amaravati is only superficial, or whether there is any tie of kinship which really unites them together. The nature of Vetala and the rites connected with his worship are vividly described in the Katha-sarit-sagara, a sixth century translation into Sanskrit of the Brihatkatha of Gunadhya, who is supposed to have lived between the 1st century B.C. and the 3rd century A.D. We understand from this work that the term Vetala did not originally signify an individual demon but a class. It was applied to the ghosts of a particular type. They dwelt in the cemeteries and lived upon the corpses. They could assume the forms of men or animals at will. We have a quaint description of Vetala in one place: “Then came a Vetala, as tall as a black palmyra tree, with the neck of a camel, the face of an elephant, the feet of a buffalo, the eyes of an owl, and the ears of a donkey [11].” But more frequently, the Vetalas were believed to be ordinary ghosts which animated dead bodies. They could be pressed into the service of men, by means of powerful charms. There grew up a desire in men’s minds to master them by uttering mantras. This desire gave birth to an extensive practice of sorcery. A person delirious of subjugating a Vetala was required to perform certain preliminary rites, which were usually conducted in the smasana on the night of the fourteenth day of the dark fortnight. The undertaking was, indeed, risky, for the demon was in the habit of playing many pranks to deceive the sorcerer. If he were not courageous, he would be eaten by the demon. Many sorcerers, therefore, sought and obtained the help of heroes, in order to secure their subject.

The rites that were performed in connection with the worship of Vetala are described in the story of Sri-Darsana:

“The sorcerer adorned the corpse with red garlands and red sandal-paste; he then drew a big circle with the powder of human bones; placed in the four corners, four pots filled with human blood; lighted a lamp with oil extracted from human fat; and making the corpse animated by Vetala lie on its back in the center of the circle, he seated himself upon its chest, and began to perform homa in its mouth, using human bones as fuel.”

Another description of this rite is found in one of the stories of Vetala:

“He (the sorcerer) besmeared the ground with blood, and described thereon a circle with the white powder of pounded human bones; placed at the corners pots filled with blood; lighted a lamp with the oil of human fat; and by the side of it performed homa in the fire.”

In another story of the same series we have a further description of this rite:

“He (the sorcerer) helped the king to deposit the corpse on the ground. Then he gave it a bath, applied sandal paste to it, adorned it with garlands, and established it in the middle of a circle. He besmeared his body with ashes, put on a sacrificial cord of twisted hair, covered himself with a winding sheet, and meditating for a moment, he summoned by the power of his charms a Vetala into the corpse, and worshiped him in accordance with the regulations. The sramana gave Vetala arghya with human blood in a human skull; offered him flowers and perfumes; gave dhupa with human eyes; and offered him human flesh as a solemn meal [14].”

Yet another description:—

“Having been thus dragged by the force of his mantras I entered the smasana, which was full of bones and skulls, surrounded by bhatas, and resounding with the din caused by the cries of bhairavas, in a frightened condition. There I saw the Kapalika who laid a corpse on its back in the middle of a circle, performing the homa in the fire [15].”

In all these descriptions, two important points are noticeable: the circle of pounded human bones: and the position, in its centre, of the corpse to animate into which the Vetala was summoned. The circle is the most primitive and fundamental idea. It “acts as a prison house from which escape is impossible [16].” The ghosts of the dead are kept within this circle.

The purpose for which so many stone circles were built in the ancient cemetery in the neighborhood of Amaravati has now been made clear. They were intended to restrain the ghosts from moving far from their graves. The idea that the ghosts could be pressed into the service of man came later. It was then that the sorcerers attempted to summon these ghosts into dead bodies and imprison them in a magic circle, until they promised them obedience. Vetala was not the only demon that became the object of the sorcerer’s magic. The Yakshas were similarly summoned to serve the masters of powerful incantations. But Vetala was the most powerful and cruel of all the demons. This explains his great popularity with the magicians.

The cult of Vetala, however, has undergone some modifications, since the days of Gunadhya. What was originally a class name became the name of an individual demon, who is considered at the present day an avatara of Siva. The circle of pounded human bones gave place to the modern circle of stones; and the corpse disappeared to make room for the pyramidal or triangular stone in which the demon is supposed to live. The worship of an amorphous class of demons crystallized into the cult of a single devil. What was originally a temporary shrine took the shape, in the course of time, of a solid and permanent circle of stones.

end.

Notes

J.W. Breeks, The Primitive Tribes of Nilgiris. p.96
Ibid
Thurston, Castes and Tribes, Vol 1. p.208
Longhurst, The Madras Archaeological Report 1912-13. p.58
William Crooke, Things Indian
S.C. Roy, The Birhors. p.265-7, 269-71
S.C. Roy, The Mundas. p. 465
Stevenson, J.R.A.S. Vol V. p. 192-5
Ibid
William Crooke, Things Indian
Venkataraya Sastri, Katha-sarit-sagara, Vol II. p.809
Ibid, p. 715-6
Ibid, p. 844
Ibid, p. 815
Ibid, p. 1029-30
Penzer, The Ocean Story. p.100